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Demokrasi ( Yunanca : δημοκρατία , Demokratia gelen demolar 'insanlar' ve Kratos 'kuralı') [1] şeklidir hükümet hangi insanlar var yetkisini kendi yöneten seçmek için yasama . Kimin halkın bir parçası olarak kabul edildiğine ve yetkinin insanlar arasında nasıl paylaşıldığına veya yetkinin insanlar tarafından nasıl paylaşıldığına ilişkin kararlar, farklı ülkelerde zamanla ve farklı hızlarda değişti, ancak giderek daha fazla sayıda tüm ülkelerin sakinlerini içeriyor. Dönüm noktaları arasında toplanma ve konuşma özgürlüğü ,kapsayıcılık ve eşitlik , üyelik , rıza , oy verme , yaşam hakkı ve azınlık hakları .
Kavramı demokrasinin, önemli bir zaman içinde gelişti [2] ve genel olarak Demokrasinin iki akım türleri doğrudan temsilidir. Bir de direkt demokrasi , insanlar doğrudan müzakere eder ve mevzuata ilişkin karar verirler. Bir de temsili demokrasinin , insan müzakere eder ve bu gibi mevzuata karar temsilcilerini seçme parlamenter veya başkanlık demokrasi . [3] Sıvı demokrasi , bu iki temel türün unsurlarını birleştirir.
Demokrasilerin Yaygın gün için günlük karar verme olan çoğunluk kuralı , [4] [5] , diğer karar verme gibi yaklaşımlar da salt çoğunluk ve konsensüs demokrasilere aynı entegre olmuştur. Hassas konularda kapsayıcılık ve daha geniş meşruiyet gibi önemli bir amaca hizmet ediyorlar, çoğunlukçuluğu dengeliyorlar ve bu nedenle çoğunlukla anayasal düzeyde öncelik taşıyorlar .
Liberal demokrasinin ortak varyantında , çoğunluğun yetkileri temsili bir demokrasi çerçevesinde kullanılır, ancak anayasa çoğunluğu sınırlar ve genellikle tüm belirli bireysel haklardan, örneğin ifade özgürlüğünden yararlanarak azınlığı korur. veya örgütlenme özgürlüğü. [6] [7] Bu genel demokrasi türlerinin yanı sıra, çok sayıda başka tür de vardır ( aşağıya bakınız ).
Demokrasi, tüm güçlerin çıkarlarını gerçekleştirmek için defalarca mücadele etmesine neden olur ve gücü insan gruplarından kurallara devreder. [8] Antik çağda varolandan farklı olarak Batı demokrasisinin , genellikle , özgür erkek nüfusun çeşitli şema ve derecelerinin gözlendiği Klasik Atina ve Roma Cumhuriyeti gibi şehir devletlerinde ortaya çıktığı kabul edilir . Batı'da geç antik çağın başında kayboldu . İngilizce kelime, daha eski Orta Fransızca ve Orta Latince eşdeğerlerinden 16. yüzyıla kadar uzanmaktadır .
Amerikalı siyaset bilimci Larry Diamond'a göre , demokrasi dört temel unsurdan oluşur: özgür ve adil seçimler yoluyla hükümeti seçmek ve değiştirmek için bir siyasi sistem ; halkın vatandaş olarak siyasete ve sivil hayata aktif katılımı; tüm vatandaşların insan haklarının korunması ; ve kanunların ve prosedürlerin tüm vatandaşlara eşit olarak uygulandığı bir hukuk kuralı . [9] Todd Landman, yine de, dikkatimizi demokrasi ve insan haklarının iki farklı kavram olduğu ve "demokrasi ve insan haklarının kavramsallaştırılması ve işlevselleştirilmesinde daha fazla özgüllük olması gerektiğine" çekiyor . [10]
Bu terim, MÖ 5. yüzyılda ortaya çıktı ve o zamanlar Yunan şehir devletlerinde , özellikle de Atina'da var olan siyasi sistemleri , aristokrasinin ( ἀριστοκρατία , aristokratía ) aksine , "bir elitin kuralı" anlamına gelen " halkın yönetimi" anlamına gelecek şekilde belirtmek için ortaya çıktı. . Teorik olarak, bu tanımlar karşıt olsa da, pratikte bu ayrım tarihsel olarak bulanıklaştırılmıştır. [11]Örneğin Klasik Atina'nın siyasi sistemi, erkekleri özgürleştirmeye demokratik vatandaşlık tanıdı ve köleleri ve kadınları siyasi katılımdan dışladı. Antik ve modern tarih boyunca neredeyse tüm demokratik hükümetlerde, demokratik yurttaşlık , 19. ve 20. yüzyılların oy hakkı hareketleri aracılığıyla çoğu modern demokraside tüm yetişkin vatandaşlar için tam oy hakkı kazanılıncaya kadar seçkin bir sınıftan oluşuyordu .
Demokrasi, iktidarın mutlak bir monarşide olduğu gibi bir birey tarafından tutulduğu veya iktidarın bir oligarşide olduğu gibi az sayıda birey tarafından tutulduğu yönetim biçimleriyle çelişir . Bununla birlikte, Yunan felsefesinden miras alınan bu muhalefetler [12] şimdi belirsizdir, çünkü çağdaş hükümetler karışık demokratik, oligarşik ve monarşik unsurlara sahiptir. Karl Popper , diktatörlük veya tiranlığın aksine demokrasiyi tanımlayarak , insanların liderlerini kontrol etme ve devrime ihtiyaç duymadan onları devirme fırsatlarına odaklandı . [13]
Özellikler [ değiştir ]
Çoğu demokratik (10'a en yakın) En az demokratik (0'a en yakın) |
Demokrasinin nasıl tanımlanacağı konusunda bir fikir birliği yoktur - aslında, bir çalışma İngilizce dilinde en az 2.234 demokrasi tanımının mevcut olduğunu [15] buldu - ancak yasal eşitlik , siyasi özgürlük ve hukukun üstünlüğü önemli özellikler olarak tanımlandı. [16] [17] Bu ilkeler, tüm uygun vatandaşların yasa önünde eşit olmasına ve yasama süreçlerine eşit erişime sahip olmasına yansır . [ kaynak belirtilmeli ] Örneğin, temsili bir demokraside her oy eşit ağırlıktadır, temsilci olmak isteyen hiç kimse için mantıksız kısıtlamalar uygulanamaz, [kime göre? ]ve uygun vatandaşların özgürlüğü, tipik olarak biranayasa ilekorunan meşru haklar ve özgürlüklerle güvence altına alınmıştır. [18][19]"Demokrasi" nin diğer kullanımları arasındadoğrudan demokrasi vardır.
Bir teori, demokrasinin üç temel ilkeyi gerektirdiğini savunur: yukarı doğru kontrol (egemenlik en düşük otorite seviyelerinde bulunur), siyasi eşitlik ve bireylerin ve kurumların yalnızca yukarı doğru kontrol ve politik eşitliğin ilk iki ilkesini yansıtan kabul edilebilir eylemleri dikkate aldığı sosyal normlar. . [20]
"Demokrasi" terimi bazen , siyasi çoğulculuk gibi unsurları içerebilen temsili demokrasinin bir çeşidi olan liberal demokrasinin kısaltması olarak kullanılır ; kanun önünde eşitlik; Dilekçe hakkı mağduriyetin giderilmesi için seçilmiş yetkililer; yasal süreç ; sivil özgürlükler ; insan hakları ; ve hükümet dışındaki sivil toplum unsurları . [ kaynak belirtilmeli ] Roger Scruton , sivil toplum kurumları da mevcut olmadıkça demokrasinin tek başına kişisel ve siyasi özgürlük sağlayamayacağını savunuyor . [21]
Bazı ülkelerde, özellikle de Westminster sistemini oluşturan Birleşik Krallık'ta , hakim ilke, yargı bağımsızlığını korurken parlamenter egemenliktir . [22] [23] In Hindistan , parlamenter egemenlik tabidir Hindistan Anayasası içeren adli inceleme . [24] "Demokrasi" terimi tipik olarak bir siyasi devlet bağlamında kullanılsa da, ilkeler özel kuruluşlar için de geçerlidir .
Demokrasilerde kullanılan birçok karar alma yöntemi vardır, ancak çoğunluk kuralı baskın biçimdir. Tazminat olmaksızın, bireysel veya grup haklarının yasal korumaları gibi, siyasi azınlıklar " çoğunluğun tiranlığı " tarafından ezilebilir . Çoğunluk kuralı, oybirliği ile demokrasiye karşı , seçimlerin ve genel olarak müzakerenin esaslı ve prosedürel olarak " adil ", yani adil ve eşit olması ihtiyacını yaratan rekabetçi bir yaklaşımdır . Bazı ülkelerde, siyasi ifade özgürlüğü , konuşma özgürlüğü , basın özgürlüğüve internet demokrasisinin , seçmenlerin iyi bilgilendirilmesi ve kendi çıkarlarına göre oy kullanabilmeleri için önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir. [25] [26]
Ayrıca, demokrasinin temel bir özelliğinin, tüm seçmenlerin toplumlarının yaşamına özgürce ve tam olarak katılma kapasitesi olduğu öne sürülmüştür. [27] Sosyal sözleşme nosyonlarına ve tüm seçmenlerin kolektif iradesine vurgu yapan demokrasi, aynı zamanda bir siyasi kolektivizm biçimi olarak da karakterize edilebilir, çünkü tüm uygun vatandaşların eşit söz hakkına sahip olduğu bir hükümet biçimi olarak tanımlanır. kanun yapma. [28]
Cumhuriyetler , yönetilenlerin rızasıyla paylaşılan yönetim ilkesi nedeniyle çoğu kez demokrasi ile ilişkilendirilse de , cumhuriyetçilik halkın nasıl yöneteceğini belirlemediğinden , zorunlu olarak demokrasiler değildir . [29] Klasik olarak " cumhuriyet " terimi hem demokrasileri hem de aristokrasileri kapsıyordu . [30] [31] Modern anlamda cumhuriyetçi hükümet biçimi, hükümdar olmayan bir hükümet biçimidir . Bu demokrasiler nedeniyle cumhuriyetler veya Birleşik Krallık gibi anayasal monarşiler olabilir .
Tarih [ düzenle ]
Tarihsel olarak, demokrasiler ve cumhuriyetler nadirdi. [33] Cumhuriyetçi teorisyenler demokrasiyi küçük boyuta bağladılar: siyasi birimlerin boyutu büyüdükçe, hükümetin despot olma olasılığı arttı. [33] [34] Aynı zamanda, küçük siyasi birimler fetihlere karşı savunmasızdı. [33] Montesquieu , "Bir cumhuriyet küçükse, yabancı bir güç tarafından yok edilir; eğer büyükse, bir iç kusurla mahvolur." [35] Johns Hopkins Üniversitesi siyaset bilimcisi Daniel Deudney'e göre , büyük boyutu ve kontrol ve denge sistemi ile Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin kurulması, boyutun ikili sorunlarına bir çözümdü. [33]
Yaygın olarak, demokrasi ve demokratikleşmenin, ilköğretimin dünya çapında yaygınlaşmasının önemli itici güçleri olduğu iddia edilmektedir. Bununla birlikte, tarihsel eğitim trendlerinden elde edilen yeni kanıtlar bu iddiaya meydan okuyor. 109 ülke için 1820'den 2010'a kadar tarihsel öğrenci kayıt oranlarının analizi, demokratikleşmenin dünya çapında ilköğretime erişimi artırdığı iddiasını desteklemez. Demokrasiye geçişlerin genellikle ilköğretimin genişlemesindeki bir ivme ile aynı zamana denk geldiği doğrudur, ancak aynı hızlanma demokratik olmayan ülkelerde de gözlenmiştir. [36]
Tarihi kökenler ve proto-demokratik toplumlar [ değiştir ]
Beyan edilen demokrasiler dışında geriye dönük olarak farklı siyasetler proto-demokratik olarak tanımlandı (bkz . Demokrasi tarihi ).
Kökenler [ düzenle ]
Vadeli demokrasi ilk şehir-devlet eski Yunan siyasi ve felsefi düşünce ortaya çıktı Atina sırasında klasik antik . [37] [38] Kelime dêmos '(ortak) insanlar' ve krátos 'kuvvet / kudret'ten gelir . [39] altında Kleistenes genellikle 508-507 M.Ö. demokrasi türünün ilk örneği olarak düzenlenen, ne Atina'da kuruldu. Cleisthenes, " Atina demokrasisinin babası" olarak anılır . [40]
Atina demokrasisi doğrudan bir demokrasi biçimini aldı ve iki ayırt edici özelliği vardı: az sayıdaki hükümet idari ve adli makamını doldurmak için sıradan vatandaşların rastgele seçilmesi [41] ve tüm Atina vatandaşlarından oluşan bir yasama meclisi. [42] Tüm uygun vatandaşların, şehir devletinin yasalarını belirleyen mecliste konuşmasına ve oy kullanmasına izin verildi. Bununla birlikte, Atina vatandaşlığı kadınları, köleleri, yabancıları (μέτοικοι / métoikoi ) ve askerlik yaşının altındaki gençleri kapsam dışında bıraktı . [43] [44] [ çelişkili ]Etkili olarak, Atina'da yaşayan her 4 kişiden sadece 1'i vatandaş olarak nitelendirildi. Arazi sahibi olmak vatandaşlık için bir gereklilik değildi. [45] Nüfusun büyük bir kısmının yurttaş bedeninden dışlanması, eski yurttaşlık anlayışıyla yakından ilgilidir. Antik çağların çoğunda vatandaşlığın yararı, savaş kampanyalarıyla mücadele yükümlülüğüne bağlıydı. [46]
Atina demokrasisi sadece değildi doğrudan da kararların monte insanlar tarafından yapıldığı anlamında, ama en doğrudan montaj yoluyla insanlar bu anlamda boule ve hukuk mahkemeleri kontrollü bütün siyasi süreç ve vatandaşların büyük bir kısmı vardı sürekli olarak kamu işinde yer alır. [47] Bireyin hakları modern anlamda Atina anayasası tarafından güvence altına alınmamış olsa da (eski Yunanlılar "haklar" için hiçbir söze sahip değildi [48] ), Atina vatandaşı olanlar özgürlüklerinden yararlandılar. hükümet değil, başka bir güce tabi olmayan bir şehirde yaşayarak ve kendilerini başka bir kişinin yönetimine tabi olmayarak.[49]
Menzil oylaması Sparta'da MÖ 700 gibi erken bir tarihte ortaya çıktı . Apella yaşı en az 30 yıl her erkek vatandaş katılabilecek hangi ayda bir kez düzenlenen insanlar, bir toplantı yapıldı. Apella'da Spartalılar liderleri seçer ve oylama ve bağırarak oy verirler (oylama daha sonra kalabalığın ne kadar yüksek sesle bağıracağına karar verilir). Aristoteles , Atina vatandaşlarının kullandığı taş oylama oy pusulalarına kıyasla bunu "çocukça" olarak nitelendirdi. Sparta, basitliği ve erken demokratik seçimlerde baskın olan herhangi bir önyargılı oylama, satın alma veya hile yapmayı önlemek için bunu benimsedi. [50] [51]
Roma Cumhuriyeti demokrasinin birçok yönüne önemli katkılarda bulunsa da , Romalıların yalnızca bir azınlığı temsilci seçimlerinde oy alan vatandaşlardı. Güçlülerin oylarına bir gerrymandering sistemiyle daha fazla ağırlık verildi , bu nedenle Senato üyeleri de dahil olmak üzere çoğu üst düzey yetkili birkaç varlıklı ve asil aileden geliyordu. [52] Buna ek olarak, Roma Krallığı'nın devrilmesi , Batı dünyasında, çok fazla demokrasiye sahip olmasa da , açıkça cumhuriyet olma amacıyla kurulan bir yönetimin ilk örneğiydi . Roma yönetim modeli, yüzyıllar boyunca pek çok siyasi düşünüre ilham verdi, [53]ve günümüzün modern temsili demokrasileri, Romalıları Yunan modellerinden daha çok taklit ediyorlar, çünkü bu, halkın ve onların seçilmiş temsilcilerinin en yüksek gücün elinde olduğu ve seçilmiş veya aday gösterilen bir lidere sahip olduğu bir devletti. [54]
Hindistan'daki Vajjian Konfederasyonu'nun (Vrijji mahajanapada ) başkenti Vaishali de [ kim tarafından? ] MÖ 6. yüzyıl civarında bir cumhuriyetin ilk örneklerinden biri . [55] [56] [57] [ doğrulama başarısız ]
MS 1450-1600 yılları arasında Amerika'daki Iroquois Ulusu gibi diğer kültürler de Avrupalılarla temasa geçmeden önce bir tür demokratik toplum geliştirdiler. Bu, demokrasi biçimlerinin dünyadaki diğer toplumlarda icat edilmiş olabileceğini gösterir. [ alıntı gerekli ]
Orta Çağ [ değiştir ]
Orta Çağ boyunca Avrupa'daki çoğu bölge din adamları veya feodal beyler tarafından yönetilirken , genellikle nüfusun sadece küçük bir bölümünü içermesine rağmen, seçimleri veya meclisleri içeren çeşitli sistemler vardı. In İskandinavya olarak bilinen organları şeylerin bir tarafından başkanlık özgürler oluşuyordu lawspeaker . Bunlar müzakereci organları siyasi sorunlarını halledebilecek sorumluydu ve birlikte varyantlar Althing içinde İzlanda ve Løgting içinde Faroe Adaları . [58] [59] Veche , bulunduDoğu Avrupa , İskandinavya benzer bir yapıdaydı. In Roma Katolik Kilisesi'nin , Papa bir tarafından seçildi papalık kardinaller toplantısı Avrupa'da ilk belgelenmiş parlamenter vücut oldu 1059. beri kardinaller oluşan León Cortes . Alfonso IX tarafından 1188'de kurulan Cortes, vergilendirme, dış ilişkiler ve yasama yetkisine sahipti, ancak rolünün tam niteliği tartışmalı olmaya devam ediyor. [60] Ragusa Cumhuriyeti , 1358 yılında kurulmuş ve kentinin çevresindeki Dubrovnik, yalnızca erkek aristokrasisine temsil ve oy hakkı sağladı. Çeşitli İtalyan şehir devletleri ve politikaları cumhuriyet yönetim biçimlerine sahipti. Örneğin, 1115'te kurulan Floransa Cumhuriyeti , üyeleri sıralama ile seçilen Signoria tarafından yönetiliyordu . Kesinlikle feodal olmayan bir toplum olan 10. – 15. yüzyıl Frizyası'nda , yerel meselelerde ve vilayet yetkilileri üzerinde oy kullanma hakkı arazi büyüklüğüne dayanıyordu. Kouroukan Fouga bölünmüş Mali İmparatorluğu denilen büyük montaj temsil edildi iktidar klan (soyları) içine Gbara . Bununla birlikte, tüzük Mali'yi bir anayasal monarşiye birdemokratik cumhuriyet .
İngiltere Parlamentosu yazılır kralların gücüne ilişkin kısıtlamalar kökleri vardı Magna Carta açıkça İngilizce ferman oldu ne King'in deneklerin belirli hakları korunan ve örtülü desteklenen (1215), bir ihzar yasadışıhapsetmekten karşı bireysel özgürlüğü korumak, itiraz hakkı ile. [61] [62] ilk temsilcisi millet meclisi İngiltere oldu Simon de Montfort'un Parlamentosu 1265. yılında [63] [64] ortaya çıkması dilekçesıradan insanların genel şikayetlerini ele almak için parlamentonun bir forum olarak kullanıldığına dair en eski kanıtlardan bazılarıdır. Ancak, parlamento çağırma yetkisi hükümdarın zevkine kalmıştı. [65]
Araştırmalar, ortaçağ döneminde Avrupa'da parlamenter kurumların ortaya çıkışını kentsel yığılmaya ve zanaatkârlar gibi yeni sınıfların yaratılmasına [66] ve soyluların ve dini elitlerin varlığına bağlamıştır. [67] Araştırmacılar ayrıca, temsili hükümetin ortaya çıkışını Avrupa'nın göreli siyasi parçalanmasına bağladılar. [68]New York Üniversitesi siyaset bilimcisi David Stasavage, Avrupa'nın parçalanmasını ve ardından gelen demokratikleşmeyi Roma İmparatorluğu'nun çöküş şekline bağlar: Roma toprakları, küçük parçalanmış Germen kabileleri grupları tarafından fethedildi ve böylece küçük siyasi birimlerin oluşmasına yol açtı. yöneticiler görece zayıftı ve yabancı tehditlerden korunmak için yönetilenlerin rızasına ihtiyaç duyuyordu. [69]
In Polonya , asil demokrasi orta aktivitesindeki artış ile karakterize edilmiştir asalet patronları pahasına yetkisini kullanırken paylarını artırmak istedik. Kodamanlar eyaletteki en önemli bürolara (laik ve dini) hükmetti ve kraliyet konseyinde, daha sonra senatoda oturdu. Orta soyluların artan önemi , daha sonra daha fazla hak elde eden kara sejmik (yerel meclis) kurumunun kurulmasında etkili oldu . On altıncı yüzyılın on beşinci ve ilk yarısında sejmiks giderek daha fazla yetkiye sahip oldu ve yerel iktidarın en önemli kurumları haline geldi. 1454'te, kral Casimir IV Jagiellonsejmiklere vergiler konusunda karar verme ve Nieszawa Tüzüğünde toplu seferberlik düzenleme hakkı verdi . Ayrıca onların rızası olmadan yeni yasalar oluşturmayacağına da söz verdi. [70]
Modern çağ [ değiştir ]
Erken modern dönem [ değiştir ]
17. yüzyıl İngiltere'sinde Magna Carta'ya yeniden ilgi vardı . [71] İngiltere Parlamentosu, özneler için belirli özgürlükler sağlayan Hak Dilekçesini 1628'de kabul etti . İngiliz İç Savaşı (1642-1651) Kral ve bir oligarşik arasındaki savaştı ama seçildi TBMM, [72] [73] Bir siyasi partinin fikri sırasında siyasi temsil haklarını münazara gruplarla şeklini aldı sırasında Putney Tartışmaları 1647 arasında . [74] daha sonra Himaye (1653-1659) ve İngiliz Restorasyon Parlamentosu geçti rağmen (1660), daha otokratik kural restore1679'da Habeas Corpus Yasası , yeterli sebep veya delil olmadan tutuklamayı yasaklayan sözleşmeyi güçlendirdi. 1688 Görkemli Devriminden sonra, bazı hak ve özgürlükleri kanunlaştıran ve hala yürürlükte olan Haklar Bildirgesi 1689'da kabul edildi. Tasarı, olağan seçim şartlarını, Parlamentoda ifade özgürlüğü kurallarını ortaya koydu ve hükümdarın gücünü sınırlandırarak, o zamanlar Avrupa'nın büyük bir kısmının aksine, kraliyet mutlakıyetçiliğinin galip gelmemesini sağladı . [75] [76] Ekonomi tarihçileri Douglass North ve Barry WeingastGörkemli Devrim'de uygulanan kurumları, hükümeti dizginlemek ve mülkiyet haklarının korunmasını sağlamak açısından yankılanan bir başarı olarak nitelendirmiştir. [77]
17. yüzyılda Magna Carta, İngiliz İç Savaşı ve Görkemli Devrim'e olan ilginin yenilenmesi , Britanya Adaları'nda siyaset felsefesinin büyümesine yol açtı . Thomas Hobbes , ayrıntılı bir sosyal sözleşme teorisini ifade eden ilk filozoftur . Yazısında Leviathan (1651), Hobbes yaşayan bu bireylerin teorize doğa durumu "yalnız, yoksul, pis, vahşi ve kısa" olduğunu ve sürekli bir ücretli yaşam sürmüş herkese karşı savaşı . Hobbes, anarşik bir doğa durumunun ortaya çıkmasını önlemek için, bireylerin haklarını güçlü, otoriter bir hükümete devrettiklerini düşündü. Daha sonra filozof ve doktor John Lockesosyal sözleşme teorisinin farklı bir yorumunu varsayabilirdi. Onun yazısında Hükümet Üzerine İki İnceleme (1689), Locke tüm bireyler yaşam, özgürlük ve mülk (mülkiyet) için vazgeçilemez haklara sahip olduğunu öne sürdü. [78] Locke'a göre, bireyler, haklarını savunmak amacıyla gönüllü olarak bir araya gelerek bir devlet kuracaklardı. Locke için özellikle önemli olan, Locke'un korunması bir hükümetin birincil amacı olarak kabul edilen mülkiyet haklarıydı. [79] Ayrıca Locke, hükümetlerin ancak yönetilenin rızasına sahip olmaları halinde meşru olduğunu iddia etti . Locke için vatandaşların isyan etme hakkı vardıkendi çıkarlarına aykırı hareket eden ya da zalimleşen bir hükümete karşı. [80] Yaşamı boyunca geniş çapta okunmasa da, Locke'un eserleri liberal düşüncenin kurucu belgeleri olarak kabul edilir ve Amerikan Devrimi ve daha sonra Fransız Devrimi'nin liderlerini derinden etkilemiştir . [81] Onun liberal demokratik yönetim çerçevesi, dünyadaki en önde gelen demokrasi biçimi olmaya devam etmektedir.
16. ve 17. yüzyıllarda Ukrayna'nın Kazak cumhuriyetlerinde, Hetman'ın en yüksek mevkisinin sahibi olan Kazak Hetmanate ve Zaporizhian Sich , ülkenin ilçelerinden temsilciler tarafından seçildi.
Kuzey Amerika'da, temsili hükümet , 1619'da Burgesses Meclisi'nin ( Virginia Genel Meclisi'nin öncüsü) seçilmesiyle Jamestown, Virginia'da başladı. 1620 yerel yönetimleri demokratik olan New England'daki yerleşik kolonilerden göç eden İngiliz Püritenleri; [82] Bu yerel meclislerin bazı küçük miktarlarda devredilmiş yetkileri olmasına rağmen, nihai yetki Kraliyet ve İngiliz Parlamentosu'na aitti. Puritanlar ( Pilgrim babalar ), Vaftizciler ve Quakerbu kolonileri kuranlar, cemaatlerinin demokratik örgütlenmesini dünyevi meselelerde kendi cemaatlerinin yönetimine de uygulamışlardır. [83] [84] [85]
18. ve 19. yüzyıllar [ değiştir ]
Büyük Britanya ilk Meclis birleşmesinden sonra, 1707 yılında kurulmuş İngiltere'nin Krallığı ve İskoçya Krallığı altında Birliği Resullerin . Her ne kadar hükümdar giderek bir figür haline gelse de , [87] Parlamento, 1780'de nüfusun% 3'üne tekabül eden erkek mülk sahipleri tarafından seçildi. [88] Genel seçimlerde oy kullanan , Afrika mirasına sahip bilinen ilk İngiliz kişi , Ignatius Sancho , 1774 ve 1780 oy kullandı [89] sırasında Özgürlük Çağında İsveç'te (1718-1772), medeni haklargenişletildi ve güç hükümdardan parlamentoya kaydırıldı. Vergilendirilmiş köylülük, çok az etkiye sahip olmasına rağmen, parlamentoda temsil ediliyordu, ancak vergilendirilmiş mülkü olmayan halkın oy hakkı yoktu.
Kısa ömürlü Korsika Cumhuriyeti'nin 1755'te kurulması, modern tarihte demokratik bir anayasa kabul eden ilk ulus oldu (25 yaşın üzerindeki tüm erkekler ve kadınlar oy kullanabilir). [90] Bu Korsika Anayasası , Aydınlanma ilkelerine dayanan ilk Anayasa idi ve 20. yüzyıla kadar diğer çoğu demokraside verilmeyen bir şey olan kadın oy hakkını içeriyordu .
1776'dan önceki Amerikan sömürge döneminde ve bir süre sonra, genellikle yalnızca yetişkin beyaz erkek mülk sahipleri oy kullanabiliyordu; köleleştirilmiş Afrikalılar, özgür siyahların çoğu ve çoğu kadının oy hakkı uzatılmadı. Bu, eyaletten eyalete göre değişti, kısa bir süre sonra Vermont olarak adlandırılan cumhuriyetçi New Connecticut Eyaleti'nden başlayarak , 1777'de Büyük Britanya'nın bağımsızlığını ilan ettiğinde, mülk sahibi olan veya olmayan erkekler için vatandaşlık ve demokratik oy hakkı ile Pennsylvania modelini benimseyen bir anayasayı kabul etti ve köleliği kaldırmaya devam etti. [91] [92] Amerikan Devrimi benimsenmesine yol açmıştır ABD Anayasası hala, 1787 yılında hükümet, aktif en eski kurtulamamacasınakodlanmış anayasa . Anayasa seçilmiş bir hükümeti sağladı ve bazıları için medeni hakları ve özgürlükleri korudu, ancak Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde köleliği sona erdirmedi ya da oy kullanma haklarını genişletmedi , bunun yerine oy hakkı meselesini eyaletlere bıraktı. [93] Genel olarak, beyaz erkek mülk sahipleri ve vergi mükelleflerine sınırlı oy hakkı verir. [94] 1789'daki ilk Başkanlık seçimi sırasında , nüfusun yaklaşık% 6'sı oy kullanma hakkına sahipti. [95] 1790 Vatandaşlığa Geçiş Yasası, ABD vatandaşlığını yalnızca beyazlarla sınırladı. [96] Haklar Bildirgesi1791'de kişisel özgürlükleri korumak için hükümetin yetkisine sınırlar koydu, ancak onaylandıktan sonraki ilk 130 yıl boyunca mahkemelerin kararları üzerinde çok az etkisi oldu. [97]
Devrimci Fransa , 1789'da İnsan ve Vatandaş Hakları Bildirgesini kabul etti ve kısa ömürlü olmasına rağmen, Ulusal Sözleşme 1792'de herkes tarafından seçildi. [98] 3 Mayıs 1791 tarihli Polonya-Litvanya Anayasası'nın uygulanması amaçlandı. daha etkili bir anayasal monarşi , kasaba halkı ile soylular arasında siyasi eşitliği getirdi ve köylüleri hükümetin koruması altına alarak, serfliğin en kötü suiistimallerini hafifletti . 19 aydan daha kısa bir süredir yürürlükte olan 1793'te toplanan Grodno Sejm tarafından geçersiz ilan edildi. [99] [100]Bununla birlikte, 1791 Anayasası, Polonya'nın bir asır sonra ülkenin egemenliğinin nihai restorasyonu için özlemlerini canlı tutmaya yardımcı oldu.
Bununla birlikte, 19. yüzyılın başlarında, Kuzey Atlantik dünyasında çok az demokrasi - teori, uygulama ve hatta kelime olarak - kaldı. [101] Bu dönemde kölelik , dünyanın çeşitli yerlerinde sosyal ve ekonomik bir kurum olarak kaldı. Bu, özellikle sekiz görev yapan başkanın kölelere sahip olduğu ve son on beş köle devletinin , İç Savaş'a kadar Amerika'nın güneyinde köleliği yasal tuttuğu Birleşik Devletler'deki durumdu . [102] Siyahların ABD'den daha fazla özgürlük ve eşitlikten yararlanabilecekleri yerlere hareketini savunan ACS'nin kölelik karşıtı üyeleri, 1820'lerde Liberya yerleşimini kurdular . [103]Birleşik Krallık Köle Ticareti Yasası 1807 , Britanya İmparatorluğu'nun diğer ülkelerle müzakere ettiği anlaşmalar uyarınca Kraliyet Donanması tarafından uluslararası olarak uygulanan İngiliz İmparatorluğu genelinde ticareti yasakladı . [104] 1833 yılında Birleşik Krallık geçti Kölelik kaldırılması Yasası kölelik yasal olarak kontrol alanlarda devam etmesine izin rağmen, İngiliz İmparatorluğu genelinde yürürlüğe giren Doğu Hindistan Şirketi de, Seylan , ve Saint Helena bir için ek on yıl . [105]
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde, mülk sahibi olmayan beyaz erkeklerin eyaletlerin büyük çoğunluğunda oy kullanabildiği ilk 1828 başkanlık seçimi oldu. Seçmen katılımı 1830'larda artarak 1840 başkanlık seçimlerinde yetişkin beyaz erkek nüfusunun yaklaşık% 80'ine ulaştı . [106] Kuzey Carolina, 1856'da mülkiyet yeterliliğini kaldıran son eyalet oldu ve bu da evrensel beyaz erkek oy hakkına yakın bir yaklaşımla sonuçlandı (ancak vergi ödeme gereklilikleri 1860'da beş eyalette kaldı ve 20. yüzyıla kadar iki eyalette hayatta kaldı). [107] [108] [109] [1 nb] In 1860 Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Sayımı , köle nüfusu dört milyon büyümüştü, [110]ve İmar İç Savaşı sonrasında, üç anayasa değişiklikleri geçirildi: 13 Değişiklik kölelik sona erdi (1865); 14 Değişiklik siyahların vatandaşlık verdi (1869), ve 15 Değişiklik oylama siyah erkeklerin nominal hakkı verdi (1870). [111] [112] Vatandaşların tam oy hakkı , medeni haklar hareketi 1965 tarihli ABD Oy Hakları Yasası Kongresi tarafından kabul edilinceye kadar güvence altına alınamadı . [113] [114]
Birleşik Krallık'taki oy hakkı genişletildi ve 1832 Reform Yasası ile başlayan ve özellikle 1918 Halkın Temsili Yasası ve 1928 Eşit Franchise Yasası ile 20. yüzyıla kadar devam eden bir dizi reformda daha tekdüze hale getirildi . 1848 Fransız Devrimi'nin ardından 1848 Mart'ında Fransa'da genel erkek oy hakkı kuruldu . [115] 1848'de, hükümdarlar liberal anayasalar ve daha demokratik hükümet için halkın talepleriyle karşı karşıya kaldıklarında , Avrupa'da birkaç devrim patlak verdi . [116]
1876'da Osmanlı İmparatorluğu mutlak monarşiden anayasal monarşiye geçiş yaptı ve ertesi yıl yeni kurulan parlamentosuna üye seçmek için iki seçim yaptı. [117] İl İdare Meclislerinin seçilmiş üyelerinin ilk Meclis'e üye seçeceklerini belirten Geçici Seçim Yönetmeliği yayınlandı . Aynı yılın ilerleyen saatlerinde , Sultan tarafından atanan bir Senato ve halk tarafından seçilen bir Milletvekilleri Meclisi ile iki meclisli bir Parlamento öngören yeni bir anayasa kabul edildi . Sadece Türkçe bilen 30 yaş üstü erkeklerve tam medeni haklara sahipti. Diskalifiye edilme nedenleri arasında çifte vatandaşlığa sahip olmak, yabancı bir hükümet tarafından istihdam edilmek, iflas etmek, hizmetçi olarak çalışmak veya "kötü işler için kötü şöhrete sahip olmak" yer alıyordu. 1934'te tam genel oy hakkı elde edildi.
1893'te kendi kendini yöneten koloni Yeni Zelanda , kadınlara oy verme hakkı vererek aktif genel oy hakkı veren dünyadaki ilk ülke oldu (kısa ömürlü 18. yüzyıl Korsika Cumhuriyeti hariç) . [118]
20. ve 21. yüzyıllar [ değiştir ]
20. yüzyılda liberal demokrasiye geçişler , çeşitli şekillerde savaşlardan, devrimlerden, dekolonizasyondan ve dini ve ekonomik koşullardan kaynaklanan birbirini izleyen " demokrasi dalgaları " ile geldi . [119] Demokratikleşmeyi tersine çeviren küresel "demokratik gerileme" dalgaları da 1920'lerde ve 30'larda, 1960'larda ve 1970'lerde ve 2010'larda meydana geldi. [120] [121]
Birinci Dünya Savaşı ve Osmanlı ile Avusturya-Macaristan imparatorluklarının dağılması , çoğu en azından nominal olarak demokratik olan Avrupa'dan yeni ulus-devletlerin yaratılmasıyla sonuçlandı. 1920'lerde demokrasi gelişti ve kadınların oy hakkı ilerledi, ancak Büyük Buhran hayal kırıklığına neden oldu ve Avrupa, Latin Amerika ve Asya ülkelerinin çoğu güçlü adam yönetimine veya diktatörlüklere yöneldi. Faşizm ve diktatörlükler de gelişti Nazi Almanya , İtalya , İspanya ve Portekiz gibi demokratik olmayan hükümetler Baltık , Balkanlar ,Brezilya , Küba , Çin ve Japonya , diğerleri arasında. [122]
İkinci Dünya Savaşı , Batı Avrupa'da bu eğilimin kesin bir şekilde tersine dönmesine neden oldu. Demokratikleşme arasında Amerikalı, İngiliz, ve işgal Almanya'nın Fransız sektörler (tartışmalı [123] ), Avusturya, İtalya ve Japonya işgal sonraki teori için bir model olarak hizmet hükümet değişikliği . Bununla birlikte, Almanya'nın Sovyet sektörü de dahil olmak üzere Doğu Avrupa'nın çoğu, demokratik olmayan Sovyet bloğuna düştü .
Savaşı dekolonizasyon izledi ve yine yeni bağımsız devletlerin çoğu sözde demokratik anayasalara sahipti. Hindistan, dünyanın en büyük demokrasisi olarak ortaya çıktı ve öyle olmaya da devam ediyor. [124] Bir zamanlar Britanya İmparatorluğu'nun bir parçası olan ülkeler genellikle İngiliz Westminster sistemini benimsedi . [125] [126] 1960'a gelindiğinde, dünya nüfusunun çoğu sahte seçimler ve diğer hile biçimleri yaşayan ülkelerde yaşasa da (özellikle "Komünist" uluslarda ve eski sömürgelerde) ülke devletlerinin büyük çoğunluğu sözde demokrasiydi. .)
Bunu izleyen bir demokratikleşme dalgası, birçok ülke için "üçüncü demokrasi dalgası" olarak adlandırılan gerçek liberal demokrasiye doğru önemli kazanımlar getirdi. Portekiz, İspanya ve Güney Amerika'daki bazı askeri diktatörlükler 1970'lerde ve 1980'lerde sivil yönetime geri döndü. [nb 2] Bunu 1980'lerin ortalarından sonuna kadar Doğu ve Güney Asya'daki ülkeler izledi . 1980'lerdeki ekonomik rahatsızlık, Sovyet baskısına kızgınlık ile birlikte , Sovyetler Birliği'nin çöküşüne , Soğuk Savaş'ın buna bağlı olarak sona ermesine ve eski Doğu bloğunun demokratikleşmesine ve liberalleşmesine katkıda bulundu.ülkeler. Yeni demokrasilerin en başarılıları coğrafi ve kültürel olarak Batı Avrupa'ya en yakın olanlardı ve şimdi bunlar Avrupa Birliği'nin üyesi veya aday üyeleridir . 1986'da, en önde gelen Asya diktatörlüğünün devrilmesinden sonra, türünün tek demokratik devleti, daha sonra Asya Demokrasisinin Annesi olarak anılacak olan Corazon Aquino'nun yükselişiyle Filipinler'de ortaya çıktı .
Liberal eğilim 1990'larda Afrika'daki bazı ülkelere, özellikle de Güney Afrika'da yayıldı. Serbestleşme girişimleri Bazı yeni örnekler 1998 Endonezya Devrimi'ni , Buldozer Devrimi de Yugoslavya , Gül Devrimi içinde Gürcistan , Turuncu Devrim Ukrayna'daki, Sedir Devrimi Lübnan'da, Lale Devrimi içinde Kırgızistan ve Yasemin Devrimi de Tunus .
Freedom House'a göre , 2007'de 123 seçim demokrasisi vardı (1972'de 40 idi). [128] Dünya Demokrasi Forumu'na göre , seçim demokrasileri şu anda 192 mevcut ülkenin 120'sini temsil ediyor ve dünya nüfusunun yüzde 58,2'sini oluşturuyor. Aynı zamanda liberal demokrasiler, yani Freedom House'un özgür ve temel insan haklarına saygılı gördüğü ülkeler ve hukukun üstünlüğü sayıca 85 ve dünya nüfusunun yüzde 38'ini temsil ediyor. [129] Yine 2007'de Birleşmiş Milletler 15 Eylül'ü Uluslararası Demokrasi Günü olarak ilan etti . [130]
Çoğu seçim demokrasisi, 18 yaşın altındakileri oy kullanma hakkının dışında tutmaya devam ediyor. [131] Brezilya, Avusturya, Küba ve Nikaragua dahil olmak üzere bazı ülkelerde ulusal seçimler için oy kullanma yaşı 16'ya indirildi. Kaliforniya'da, 2004'te 16'da 14'te çeyrek oya izin veren bir öneri, sonuçta reddedildi. 2008'de Alman parlamentosu, her vatandaşa doğumda oy vermesini sağlayacak ve çocuk kendileri için talep edene kadar bir ebeveyn tarafından kullanılacak bir yasa tasarısını önerdi, ancak rafa kaldırdı.
Freedom House'a göre, 2005 yılında başlayan, iyileştirmeler sayıca az olan dünyada siyasi haklar ve sivil özgürlükler düşüşler olduğu onbir yıl üst üste olmuştur, [132] olarak popülist ve milliyetçi siyasi güçler altında (Polonya her yerde zemin kazanmıştır Kanun ve Adalet Partisi ) Filipinler'e ( Rodrigo Duterte yönetiminde ). [132] [120] 2018'de yayımlanan bir Freedom House raporunda, çoğu ülkenin Demokrasi Skorları üst üste 12. yılda düştü. [133] Christian Science Monitor , milliyetçi ve popülist political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of rule of law, in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary. For example, in Poland, the President appointed 27 new Supreme Court judges over objections from the European Union. In Turkey, thousands of judges were removed from their positions following a failed coup attempt during a government crackdown .[134]
"Democratic backsliding" in the 2010s were attributed to economic inequality and social discontent,[135] personalism,[136] poor management of COVID-19 pandemic,[137][138] as well as other factors such as government manipulation of civil society, "toxic polarization," foreign disinformation campaigns,[139] racism and nativism, excessive executive power,[140][141][142] and decreased power of the opposition.[143] Within English-speaking Western democracies, "protection-based" attitudes combining cultural conservatism and leftist economic attitudes were the strongest predictor of support for authoritarian modes of governance.[144]
Theory[edit]
Early theory[edit]
Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/timocracy), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/absolute monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to timocracy).[145][146]
A common view among early and renaissance Republican theorists was that democracy could only survive in small political communities.[147] Heeding the lessons of the Roman Republic's shift to monarchism as it grew larger or smaller, these Republican theorists held that the expansion of territory and population inevitably led to tyranny.[147] Democracy was therefore highly fragile and rare historically, as it could only survive in small political units, which due to their size were vulnerable to conquest by larger political units.[147] Montesquieu famously said, "if a republic is small, it is destroyed by an outside force; if it is large, it is destroyed by an internal vice."[147] Rousseau asserted, "It is, therefore the natural property of small states to be governed as a republic, of middling ones to be subject to a monarch, and of large empires to be swayed by a despotic prince."[147]
Contemporary theory[edit]
Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of democracy: aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy, and radical democracy.[148]
Aggregative[edit]
The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens' preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented.
Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens have given teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not "rule" because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy.[149] Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner.
According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.
Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter—with half to their left and the other half to their right. This is not a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments. Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy.[150]
Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation.[151] Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that "democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal."[152]
Deliberative[edit]
Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups.[153][154][155] If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. Citizens assemblies are considered by many scholars as practical examples of deliberative democracy,[156][157][158] with a recent OECD report identifying citizens assemblies as an increasingly popular mechanism to involve citizens in governmental decision-making.[159]
Radical[edit]
Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes.
Measurement of democracy[edit]
Several freedom indices are published by several organisations according to their own various definitions of the term and relying on different types of data:[162]
- Freedom in the World published each year since 1972 by the U.S.-based Freedom House ranks countries by political rights and civil liberties that are derived in large measure from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Countries are assessed as free, partly free, or unfree.[163]
- Worldwide Press Freedom Index is published each year since 2002 (except that 2011 was combined with 2012) by France-based Reporters Without Borders. Countries are assessed as having a good situation, a satisfactory situation, noticeable problems, a difficult situation, or a very serious situation.[164]
- The Index of Freedom in the World is an index measuring classical civil liberties published by Canada's Fraser Institute, Germany's Liberales Institute, and the U.S. Cato Institute.[165] It is not currently included in the table below.
- The CIRI Human Rights Data Project measures a range of human, civil, women's and workers rights.[166] It is now hosted by the University of Connecticut. It was created in 1994.[167] In its 2011 report, the U.S. was ranked 38th in overall human rights.[168]
- The Democracy Index, published by the UK-based Economist Intelligence Unit, is an assessment of countries' democracy. Countries are rated to be either Full Democracies, Flawed Democracies, Hybrid Regimes, or Authoritarian regimes. Full democracies, flawed democracies, and hybrid regimes are considered to be democracies, and the authoritarian nations are considered to be dictatorial. The index is based on 60 indicators grouped in five different categories.[169]
- The U.S.-based Polity data series is a widely used data series in political science research. It contains coded annual information on regime authority characteristics and transitions for all independent states with greater than 500,000 total population and covers the years 1800–2006. Polity's conclusions about a state's level of democracy are based on an evaluation of that state's elections for competitiveness, openness and level of participation. Data from this series is not currently included in the table below. The Polity work is sponsored by the Political Instability Task Force (PITF) which is funded by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. However, the views expressed in the reports are the authors' alone and do not represent the views of the US Government.
- MaxRange, a dataset defining level of democracy and institutional structure(regime-type) on a 100-graded scale where every value represents a unique regime type. Values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability. MaxRange defines the value corresponding to all states and every month from 1789 to 2015 and updating. MaxRange is created and developed by Max Range, and is now associated with the university of Halmstad, Sweden.[170]
Dieter Fuchs and Edeltraud Roller suggest that, in order to truly measure the quality of democracy, objective measurements need to be complemented by "subjective measurements based on the perspective of citizens".[171] Similarly, Quinton Mayne and Brigitte Geißel also defend that the quality of democracy does not depend exclusively on the performance of institutions, but also on the citizens' own dispositions and commitment.[172]
Difficulties in measuring democracy[edit]
Because democracy is an overarching concept that includes the functioning of diverse institutions which are not easy to measure, strong limitations exist in quantifying and econometrically measuring the potential effects of democracy or its relationship with other phenomena—whether inequality, poverty, education etc.[173] Given the constraints in acquiring reliable data with within-country variation on aspects of democracy, academics have largely studied cross-country variations. Yet variations between democratic institutions are very large across countries which constrains meaningful comparisons using statistical approaches. Since democracy is typically measured aggregately as a macro variable using a single observation for each country and each year, studying democracy faces a range of econometric constraints and is limited to basic correlations. Cross-country comparison of a composite, comprehensive and qualitative concept like democracy may thus not always be, for many purposes, methodologically rigorous or useful.[173]
Types of governmental democracies[edit]
Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others.[174][175] However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy.[176][177][178]
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The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system.
Basic forms[edit]
Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly.[179] In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a representative democracy.
Direct[edit]
Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The use of a lot system, a characteristic of Athenian democracy, is unique to direct democracies. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery.[180] A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to:
- Change constitutional laws,
- Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws,
- Give binding orders to elective officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term or initiating a lawsuit for breaking a campaign promise.
Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and recall elections are referred to as forms of direct democracy.[181] However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus,[182] the Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities,[183] communities affiliated with the CIPO-RFM,[184] the Bolivian city councils of FEJUVE,[185] and Kurdish cantons of Rojava.[186]
Representative[edit]
Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic.[187] The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems.[182]
Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so. Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy,[188][189] pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy[190][191]
Parliamentary[edit]
Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by, or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people.[192][193][194][195]
Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a Prime Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their job to the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal.[196] In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies, extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the "loyal opposition". The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or coalition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles.
Presidential[edit]
Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and aren't easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members.[196]
The president cannot be easily removed from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easily. This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence, however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia.[196]
A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country.[196]
Hybrid or semi-direct[edit]
Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybrid democracies,[197] semi-direct democracies or participatory democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U.S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives.
The Swiss confederation is a semi-direct democracy.[182] At the federal level, citizens can propose changes to the constitution (federal popular initiative) or ask for a referendum to be held on any law voted by the parliament.[182] Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums).[182] Although in the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum. The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government.[citation needed]
Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters.[198]
In New England, Town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a representative state government. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters.[199]
Variants[edit]
Constitutional monarchy[edit]
Many countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.[22][75]
In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). An elected president, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries.
Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many nations. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British House of Lords) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the Australian Senate).
Republic[edit]
The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister.[200]
The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticised democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a constitution enshrining basic rights; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a direct democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure.
What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted,[201] was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U.S. constitution, Elizabeth Willing Powel[202] asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it."[203]
Liberal democracy[edit]
A liberal democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and moderated by a constitution or laws that emphasise the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties).
In a liberal democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to emerge from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make. In other words, citizens can "vote with their feet" or "vote with their dollars", resulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many "powers" associated with formal government elsewhere.
Socialist[edit]
Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy.
Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy", which is simply referred to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralised nature. Because of orthodox Marxists' desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets). This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy.
Democracy cannot consist solely of elections that are nearly always fictitious and managed by rich landowners and professional politicians.
— Che Guevara, Speech, Uruguay, 1961[204]
Anarchist[edit]
Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous.[205] However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy,[206] and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism.[207]
Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy.[208] Henry David Thoreau, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for "a better government"[209] and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent.
Sortition[edit]
Sometimes called "democracy without elections", sortition chooses decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impartial than an elected official. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence[210] and is still used in modern jury selection.
Consociational[edit]
A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them.
Consensus democracy[edit]
A consensus democracy, in contrast, would not be dichotomous. Instead, decisions would be based on a multi-option approach, and policies would be enacted if they gained sufficient support, either in a purely verbal agreement or via a consensus vote—a multi-option preference vote. If the threshold of support were at a sufficiently high level, minorities would be as it were protected automatically. Furthermore, any voting would be ethno-colour blind.
Supranational[edit]
Qualified majority voting is designed by the Treaty of Rome to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the European Council of Ministers. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected.
Inclusive[edit]
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Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy.
The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotic assembly, i.e. the assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy.
The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker. Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example, to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. Such delegation is made, in principle, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates.
Participatory politics[edit]
A Parpolity or Participatory Polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a Nested Council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council.
A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of most lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy.
Cosmopolitan[edit]
Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as Global democracy or World Federalism, is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them.[211]
According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g. the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics.
Cosmopolitan Democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein,[212] writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi.[213] The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy.
Creative democracy[edit]
Creative Democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea about Creative Democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us"[214] and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute".
Guided democracy[edit]
Guided democracy is a form of democracy which incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner which may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "Guided democracy."[215] Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government.[216]
Non-governmental democracy[edit]
Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are controlled by shareholders on the principle of one share, one vote—sometimes supplemented by workplace democracy. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed islamocracy.[217][citation needed]
Justification[edit]
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Several justifications for democracy have been postulated.
Legitimacy[edit]
Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will.
Better decision-making[edit]
Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd.
Democratic peace[edit]
Democratic peace theory claims that liberal democracies do not go to war against each other.
Economic success[edit]
In Why Nations Fail, Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth.
Criticism[edit]
Arrow's theorem[edit]
Arrow's impossibility theorem suggests that democracy is logically incoherent. This is based on a certain set of criteria for democratic decision-making being inherently conflicting, i.e. these three "fairness" criteria:
- If every voter prefers alternative X over alternative Y, then the group prefers X over Y.
- If every voter's preference between X and Y remains unchanged, then the group's preference between X and Y will also remain unchanged (even if voters' preferences between other pairs like X and Z, Y and Z, or Z and W change).
- There is no "dictator": no single voter possesses the power to always determine the group's preference.
It is often expressed in a non-mathematical way with a statement such as no voting method is fair, every ranked voting method is flawed, or the only voting method that isn't flawed is a dictatorship.[218]
However, Arrow's formal premises can be considered overly strict, and with their reasonable weakening, the logical incoherence of democracy looks much less critical.[2]
Inefficiencies[edit]
Some economists have criticized the efficiency of democracy, citing the premise of the irrational voter, or a voter who makes decisions without all of the facts or necessary information in order to make a truly informed decision. Another argument is that democracy slows down processes because of the amount of input and participation needed in order to go forward with a decision. A common example often quoted to substantiate this point is the high economic development achieved by China (a non-democratic country) as compared to India (a democratic country). According to economists, the lack of democratic participation in countries like China allows for unfettered economic growth.[219]
On the other hand, Socrates believed that democracy without educated masses (educated in the broader sense of being knowledgeable and responsible) would only lead to populism being the criteria to become an elected leader and not competence. This would ultimately lead to a demise of the nation. This was quoted by Plato in book 10 of The Republic, in Socrates' conversation with Adimantus.[220] Socrates was of the opinion that the right to vote must not be an indiscriminate right (for example by birth or citizenship), but must be given only to people who thought sufficiently of their choice.
Popular rule as a façade[edit]
The 20th-century Italian thinkers Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca (independently) argued that democracy was illusory, and served only to mask the reality of elite rule. Indeed, they argued that elite oligarchy is the unbendable law of human nature, due largely to the apathy and division of the masses (as opposed to the drive, initiative and unity of the elites), and that democratic institutions would do no more than shift the exercise of power from oppression to manipulation.[221] As Louis Brandeis once professed, "We may have democracy, or we may have wealth concentrated in the hands of a few, but we can't have both."[clarification needed].[222] British writer Ivo Mosley, grandson of blackshirt Oswald Mosley describes in In the Name of the People: Pseudo-Democracy and the Spoiling of Our World, how and why current forms of electoral governance are destined to fall short of their promise.[223]A study led by Princeton professor Martin Gilens of 1,779 U.S. government decisions concluded that "elites and organized groups representing business interests have substantial independent impacts on U.S. government policy, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little or no independent influence."[224]
Mob rule[edit]
Plato's The Republic presents a critical view of democracy through the narration of Socrates: "Democracy, which is a charming form of government, full of variety and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality to equals and unequaled alike."[225] In his work, Plato lists 5 forms of government from best to worst. Assuming that the Republic was intended to be a serious critique of the political thought in Athens, Plato argues that only Kallipolis, an aristocracy led by the unwilling philosopher-kings (the wisest men), is a just form of government.[226]
James Madison critiqued direct democracy (which he referred to simply as "democracy") in Federalist No. 10, arguing that representative democracy—which he described using the term "republic"—is a preferable form of government, saying: "... democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths." Madison offered that republics were superior to democracies because republics safeguarded against tyranny of the majority, stating in Federalist No. 10: "the same advantage which a republic has over a democracy, in controlling the effects of faction, is enjoyed by a large over a small republic".
Political instability[edit]
More recently, democracy is criticised for not offering enough political stability. As governments are frequently elected on and off there tends to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline-grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the popular media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priorities.[227]
This opportunist alliance not only has the handicap of having to cater to too many ideologically opposing factions, but it is usually short-lived since any perceived or actual imbalance in the treatment of coalition partners, or changes to leadership in the coalition partners themselves, can very easily result in the coalition partner withdrawing its support from the government.
Biased media has been accused of causing political instability, resulting in the obstruction of democracy, rather than its promotion.[228]
Fraudulent elections[edit]
In representative democracies, it may not benefit incumbents to conduct fair elections. A study showed that incumbents who rig elections stay in office 2.5 times as long as those who permit fair elections.[229] Democracies in countries with high per capita income have been found to be less prone to violence, but in countries with low incomes the tendency is the reverse.[229] Election misconduct is more likely in countries with low per capita incomes, small populations, rich in natural resources, and a lack of institutional checks and balances. Sub-Saharan countries, as well as Afghanistan, all tend to fall into that category.[229]
Governments that have frequent elections tend to have significantly more stable economic policies than those governments who have infrequent elections. However, this trend does not apply to governments where fraudulent elections are common.[229]
Opposition[edit]
Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government within a non-democratic state is typically brought about by democratic revolution.
Development[edit]
Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy.
Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development.[230] In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy.[231][232]
Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy.[233]
Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy:[234][235] Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use.[236] By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments couldn't do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns.[236] Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy.[237]
Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:[238][need quotation to verify][239][240]
- a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing)
- an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence.
Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal.[241] In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy.[36] Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power.[36]
The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750–1850 despite arguments to the contrary.[242] Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development.
Neither is there convincing evidence that increased reliance on oil revenues prevents democratisation, despite a vast theoretical literature on "the Resource Curse" that asserts that oil revenues sever the link between citizen taxation and government accountability, seen as the key to representative democracy.[243] The lack of evidence for these conventional theories of democratisation have led researchers to search for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic.[244][245] More inclusive institutions lead to democracy because as people gain more power, they are able to demand more from the elites, who in turn have to concede more things to keep their position.[citation needed] This virtuous circle may end up in democracy.
An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plow the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated.[246] This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa.[247] Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies.
An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade.[248] Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many[quantify] places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power.[249]
In the 21st century, democracy has become such a popular method of reaching decisions that its application beyond politics to other areas such as entertainment, food and fashion, consumerism, urban planning, education, art, literature, science and theology has been criticised as "the reigning dogma of our time".[250] The argument suggests that applying a populist or market-driven approach to art and literature (for example), means that innovative creative work goes unpublished or unproduced. In education, the argument is that essential but more difficult studies are not undertaken. Science, as a truth-based discipline, is particularly corrupted by the idea that the correct conclusion can be arrived at by popular vote. However, more recently, theorists[which?] have also advanced the concept epistemic democracy to assert that democracy actually does a good job tracking the truth.
Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:
The peasant in the fable, when on his death-bed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.[251]
Dr. Harald Wydra, in his book Communism and The Emergence of Democracy (2007), maintains that the development of democracy should not be viewed as a purely procedural or as a static concept but rather as an ongoing "process of meaning formation".[252] Drawing on Claude Lefort's idea of the empty place of power, that "power emanates from the people [...] but is the power of nobody", he remarks that democracy is reverence to a symbolic mythical authority—as in reality, there is no such thing as the people or demos. Democratic political figures are not supreme rulers but rather temporary guardians of an empty place. Any claim to substance such as the collective good, the public interest or the will of the nation is subject to the competitive struggle and times of for[clarification needed] gaining the authority of office and government. The essence of the democratic system is an empty place, void of real people, which can only be temporarily filled and never be appropriated. The seat of power is there but remains open to constant change. As such, people's definitions of "democracy" or of "democratic" progress throughout history as a continual and potentially never-ending process of social construction.[253]
See also[edit]
- Consent of the governed
- Constitutional liberalism
- Democratic deficit
- Democracy Index
- Democracy Ranking
- Democratic peace theory
- Democratization
- E-democracy
- Empowered democracy
- Freedom in the World
- Foucault–Habermas debate
- Good governance
- History of democracy
- International Day of Democracy
- Mathematical theory of democracy
- Parliament in the Making
- Power to the people
- The Establishment
- Types of democracy
- Shadow government (conspiracy)
- Spatial citizenship
- Statism
Footnotes[edit]
- ^ The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1868 altered the way each state is represented in the House of Representatives. It counted all residents for apportionment including slaves, overriding the three-fifths compromise, and reduced a state's apportionment if it wrongfully denied males over the age of 21 the right to vote; however, this was not enforced in practice. Some poor white men remained excluded at least until passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. For state elections, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6–3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes were unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.
- ^ Portugal in 1974, Spain in 1975, Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985, and Chile in the early 1990s.
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- ^ Springer, Simon (2011). "Public Space as Emancipation: Meditations on Anarchism, Radical Democracy, Neoliberalism and Violence". Antipode. 43 (2): 525–62. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00827.x.
- ^ Joseph Schumpeter, (1950). Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-133008-6.
- ^ Anthony Downs, (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. Harper Collins College. ISBN 0-06-041750-1.
- ^ Dahl, Robert, (1989). Democracy and its Critics. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04938-2
- ^ Dworkin, Ronald (2006). Is Democracy Possible Here? Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13872-5, p. 134.
- ^ Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson (2002). Why Deliberative Democracy? Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12019-5
- ^ Joshua Cohen, "Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy" in Essays on Reason and Politics: Deliberative Democracy Ed. James Bohman and William Rehg (The MIT Press: Cambridge) 1997, 72–73.
- ^ Ethan J. "Can Direct Democracy Be Made Deliberative?", Buffalo Law Review, Vol. 54, 2006
- ^ Warren, Mark E.; Pearse, Hilary (2008). Designing Deliberative Democracy: The British Columbia Citizens' Assembly. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Suiter, Jane; Farrell, David M; O’Malley, Eoin (1 March 2016). "When do deliberative citizens change their opinions? Evidence from the Irish Citizens' Assembly". International Political Science Review. 37 (2): 198–212. doi:10.1177/0192512114544068. ISSN 0192-5121. S2CID 155953192.
- ^ Smith, Graham (2009). Democratic Innovations: Designing Institutions for Citizen Participation. Theories of Institutional Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51477-4.
- ^ "Innovative Citizen Participation and New Democratic Institutions: Catching the Deliberative Wave | en | OECD". www.oecd.org. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
- ^ "Freedom in the World Countries | Freedom House". freedomhouse.org. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
- ^ List of Electoral Democracies FIW21 (.XLSX), by Freedom House
- ^ Skaaning, Svend-Erik (2018). "Different Types of Data and the Validity of Democracy Measures". Politics and Governance. 6 (1): 105. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i1.1183.
- ^ "Freedom in the World 2021 Methodology". freedomhouse.org. Freedom House. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
- ^ "Press Freedom Index 2014" Archived 14 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Reporters Without Borders, 11 May 2014
- ^ " World Freedom Index 2013: Canadian Fraser Institute Ranks Countries ", Ryan Craggs, Huffington Post, 14 January 2013
- ^ "CIRI Human Rights Data Project", website. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
- ^ Michael Kirk (10 December 2010). "Annual International Human Rights Ratings Announced". University of Connecticut.
- ^ "Human Rights in 2011: The CIRI Report". CIRI Human Rights Data Project. 29 August 2013.
- ^ "Democracy index 2012: Democracy at a standstill". Economist Intelligence Unit. 14 March 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
- ^ "MaxRange". Archived from the original on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ Fuchs, Dieter; Roller, Edeltraud (2018). "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Quality of Democracy: The Citizens' Perspective". Politics and Governance. 6 (1): 22. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i1.1188.
- ^ Mayne, Quinton; Geißel, Brigitte (2018). "Don't Good Democracies Need "Good" Citizens? Citizen Dispositions and the Study of Democratic Quality". Politics and Governance. 6 (1): 33. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i1.1216.
- ^ a b Alexander Krauss, 2016. The scientific limits of understanding the (potential) relationship between complex social phenomena: the case of democracy and inequality. Vol. 23(1). Journal of Economic Methodology.
- ^ G.F. Gaus, C. Kukathas, Handbook of Political Theory, SAGE, 2004, pp. 143–45, ISBN 0-7619-6787-7, Google Books link
- ^ The Judge in a Democracy, Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 26, ISBN 0-691-12017-X, Google Books link
- ^ A. Barak, The Judge in a Democracy, Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 40, ISBN 0-691-12017-X, Google Books link
- ^ T.R. Williamson, Problems in American Democracy, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, p. 36, ISBN 1-4191-4316-6, Google Books link
- ^ U.K. Preuss, "Perspectives of Democracy and the Rule of Law." Journal of Law and Society, 18:3 (1991). pp. 353–64
- ^ Budge, Ian (2001). "Direct democracy". In Clarke, Paul A.B.; Foweraker, Joe (eds.). Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-19396-2.
- ^ Manin, Bernard (1997). "Principles of Representative Government". Choice Reviews Online. Cambridge University Press. 35 (6): 8–11. doi:10.5860/choice.35-3567. S2CID 153766786.
- ^ Beramendi, Virginia, and Jennifer Somalie. Angeyo. Direct Democracy: The International Idea Handbook. Stockholm, Sweden: International IDEA, 2008. Print.
- ^ a b c d e Vincent Golay and Mix et Remix, Swiss political institutions, Éditions loisirs et pédagogie, 2008. ISBN 978-2-606-01295-3.
- ^ Niels Barmeyer, Developing Zapatista Autonomy, Chapter Three: Who is Running the Show? The Workings of Zapatista Government.
- ^ Denham, Diana (2008). Teaching Rebellion: Stories from the Grassroots Mobilization in Oaxaca.
- ^ Zibechi, Raul (2013). Dispersing Power: Social Movements as Anti-State Forces in Latin America.
- ^ "A Very Different Ideology in the Middle East". Rudaw.
- ^ "Radical Revolution – The Thermidorean Reaction". Wsu.edu. 6 June 1999. Archived from the original on 3 February 1999. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ Köchler, Hans (1987). The Crisis of Representative Democracy. Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York. ISBN 978-3-8204-8843-2.
- ^ Urbinati, Nadia (1 October 2008). "2". Representative Democracy: Principles and Genealogy. ISBN 978-0-226-84279-0.
- ^ Fenichel Pitkin, Hanna (September 2004). "Representation and democracy: uneasy alliance". Scandinavian Political Studies. 27 (3): 335–42. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9477.2004.00109.x. S2CID 154048078.
- ^ Aristotle. "Ch. 9". Politics. Book 4.
- ^ Keen, Benjamin, A History of Latin America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980.
- ^ Kuykendall, Ralph, Hawaii: A History. New York: Prentice Hall, 1948.
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- ^ Taussig, Capt. J.K., "Experiences during the Boxer Rebellion," in Quarterdeck and Fo'c'sle. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1963
- ^ a b c d O'Neil, Patrick H. Essentials of Comparative Politics. 3rd ed. New York: W.W. Norton 2010. Print
- ^ Garret, Elizabeth (13 October 2005). "The Promise and Perils of Hybrid Democracy" (PDF). The Henry Lecture, University of Oklahoma Law School. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
- ^ "Article on direct democracy by Imraan Buccus". Themercury.co.za. Archived from the original on 17 January 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ "A Citizen's Guide To Vermont Town Meeting". July 2008. Archived from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
- ^ "Republic – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". M-W.com. 25 April 2007. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ Novanglus, no. 7. 6 March 1775
- ^ Brockell, Gillian (19 December 2019). "'A republic, if you can keep it': Did Ben Franklin really say Impeachment Day's favorite quote?". The Washington Post. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
- ^ "The Founders' Constitution: Volume 1, Chapter 18, Introduction, "Epilogue: Securing the Republic"". Press-pubs.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ "Economics Cannot be Separated from Politics" speech by Che Guevara to the ministerial meeting of the Inter-American Economic and Social Council (CIES), in Punta del Este, Uruguay on August 8, 1961
- ^ Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. General Idea of the Revolution See also commentary by Graham, Robert. The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution
- ^ Bookchin, Murray. Communalism: The Democratic Dimensions of Social Anarchism. Anarchism, Marxism and the Future of the Left: Interviews and Essays, 1993–1998, AK Press 1999, p. 155
- ^ Bookchin, Murray. Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm
- ^ Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century
- ^ Thoreau, H.D. On the Duty of Civil Disobedience
- ^ Dowlen, Oliver (2008). The Political Potential of Sortition: A study of the random selection of citizens for public office. Imprint Academic.
- ^ "Article on Cosmopolitan democracy by Daniele Archibugi" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ "letter by Einstein – "To the General Assembly of the United Nations"". Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013., first published in United Nations World New York, Oct 1947, pp. 13–14
- ^ Daniele Archibugi & David Held, eds., Cosmopolitan Democracy. An Agenda for a New World Order, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1995; David Held, Democracy and the Global Order, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1995, Daniele Archibugi, The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2008
- ^ "Creative Democracy – The Task Before Us" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
- ^ Ten Years After the Soviet Breakup: From Democratization to "Guided Democracy" Journal of Democracy. By Archie Brown. Oct. 2001. Downloaded 28 April 2017.
- ^ Putin’s Rule: Its Main Features and the Current Diarchy Johnson's Russia List. By Peter Reddaway. 18 February 2009. Downloaded 28 April 2017.
- ^ Compare: Tibi, Bassam (2013). The Sharia State: Arab Spring and Democratization. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-135-92468-3.
- ^ Cockrell, Jeff (8 March 2016). "What economists think about voting". Capital Ideas. Chicago Booth. Archived from the original on 26 March 2016. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
Is there such a thing as a perfect voting system? The respondents were unanimous in their insistence that there is not.
- ^ "Is Democracy a Pre-Condition in Economic Growth? A Perspective from the Rise of Modern China". UN Chronicle. Archived from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
- ^ Conversation of Socrates, Plato; H, Translated by Spens. The Republic of Plato – Book ten – A conversation between Socrates and Admimantus.
- ^ Femia, Joseph V. (2001). Against the masses : varieties of anti-democratic thought since the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-828063-7. OCLC 46641885.
- ^ Dilliard, Irving (1941). Mr. Justice Brandeis, great American;press opinion and public appraisal. Saint Louis. hdl:2027/mdp.39015009170443.
- ^ "Book Review, In the Name of the People". Publishers Weekly. 3 April 2013.
- ^ "Testing theories of American politics: Elites, interest groups, and average citizens", M. Gilens and B. I. Page (2014), Perspectives on politics 12, 564–581, [1]
- ^ Plato, the Republic of Plato (London: J.M Dent & Sons LTD.; New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc.), 558-C.
- ^ The contrast between Plato's theory of philosopher-kings, arresting change, and Aristotle's embrace of change is the historical tension espoused by Karl Raimund Popper in his WWII treatise, The Open Society and its Enemies (1943).
- ^ "Head to head: African democracy". BBC News. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
- ^ The Review of Policy Research, Volume 22, Issues 1–3, Policy Studies Organization, Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. p. 28
- ^ a b c d Paul Collier (8 November 2009). "5 myths about the beauty of the ballot box". Washington Post. p. B2.
- ^ For example: Lipset, Seymour Martin. (1959). "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy". American Political Science Review. 53 (1): 69–105. doi:10.2307/1951731. JSTOR 1951731. S2CID 53686238.
- ^ Inglehart, Ronald. Welzel, Christian Modernisation, Cultural Change and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence, 2005. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
- ^ Inglehart, Ronald F. (2018). Cultural Evolution: People's Motivations Are Changing, and Reshaping the World. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108613880. ISBN 978-1-108-61388-0.
- ^ Gibler, Douglas M.; Owsiak, Andrew (2017). "Democracy and the Settlement of International Borders, 1919–2001". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 62 (9): 1847–75. doi:10.1177/0022002717708599. S2CID 158036471.
- ^ Foreword, written by historian Harry J Hogan Archived 1 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine in 1982, to Quigley's Weapons Systems and Political Stability
- ^ see also Chester G Starr, Review of Weapons Systems and Political Stability, American Historical Review, Feb 1984, p. 98, available at carrollquigley.net
- ^ a b Carroll Quigley (1983). Weapons systems and political stability: a history. University Press of America. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-0-8191-2947-5. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
- ^ Carroll Quigley (1983). Weapons systems and political stability: a history. University Press of America. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-8191-2947-5. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
- ^ Glaeser, E.; Ponzetto, G.; Shleifer, A. (2007). "Why does democracy need education?". Journal of Economic Growth. 12 (2): 77–99. doi:10.1007/s10887-007-9015-1. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
- ^ Deary, I.J.; Batty, G.D.; Gale, C.R. (2008). "Bright children become enlightened adults" (PDF). Psychological Science. 19 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02036.x. PMID 18181782. S2CID 21297949.
- ^ Compare: Rindermann, H (2008). "Relevance of education and intelligence for the political development of nations: Democracy, rule of law and political liberty". Intelligence. 36 (4): 306–22. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.09.003.
Political theory has described a positive linkage between education, cognitive ability and democracy. This assumption is confirmed by positive correlations between education, cognitive ability, and positively valued political conditions (N = 183–130). [...] It is shown that in the second half of the 20th century, education and intelligence had a strong positive impact on democracy, rule of law and political liberty independent from wealth (GDP) and chosen country sample. One possible mediator of these relationships is the attainment of higher stages of moral judgment fostered by cognitive ability, which is necessary for the function of democratic rules in society. The other mediators for citizens as well as for leaders could be the increased competence and willingness to process and seek information necessary for political decisions due to greater cognitive ability. There are also weaker and less stable reverse effects of the rule of law and political freedom on cognitive ability.
- ^ Albertus, Michael; Menaldo, Victor (2012). "Coercive Capacity and the Prospects for Democratisation". Comparative Politics. 44 (2): 151–69. doi:10.5129/001041512798838003. S2CID 153949862.
- ^ Squicciarini, Mara and Voigtländer, Nico, Knowledge Elites and Modernization: Evidence from Revolutionary France (October 2016). NBER Working Paper No. w22779, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2861711
- ^ "The Resource Curse: Does the Emperor Have no Clothes?".
- ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Robinson, James A. (2006). Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85526-6.
- ^ "Rainfall and Democracy".
- ^ Alsan, Marcella (2015). "The Effect of the TseTse Fly on African Development" (PDF). American Economic Review. 105 (1): 382–410. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1010.2955. doi:10.1257/aer.20130604.
- ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James (2005). "Institutions as a fundamental cause of long-run growth". Handbook of Economic Growth. Handbook of Economic Growth. 1. pp. 385–472, Sections 1 to 4. doi:10.1016/S1574-0684(05)01006-3. ISBN 978-0-444-52041-8.
- ^ Mellinger, Andrew D., Jeffrey Sachs, and John L. Gallup. (1999). "Climate, Water Navigability, and Economic Development". Working Paper.
- ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James (2005). "Institutions as a fundamental cause of long-run growth". Handbook of Economic Growth. Handbook of Economic Growth. 1. pp. 385–472, Sections 5 to 10. doi:10.1016/S1574-0684(05)01006-3. ISBN 978-0-444-52041-8.
- ^ Farrelly, Elizabeth (15 September 2011). "Deafened by the roar of the crowd". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
- ^ Robert Michels (1999) [1962 by Crowell-Collier]. Political Parties. Transaction Publishers. p. 243. ISBN 978-1-4128-3116-1. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
- ^ Harald Wydra, Communism and the Emergence of Democracy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 22–27.
- ^ Compare: Wydra, Harald (2007). "Democracy as a process of meaning-formation". Communism and the Emergence of Democracy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 244–68. ISBN 978-1-139-46218-1. Retrieved 11 August 2018.
Works cited[edit]
- Clarke, P.; Foweraker, J. (2001). Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-19396-6.
- Livy; De Sélincourt, A.; Ogilvie, R. M.; Oakley, S. P. (2002). The early history of Rome: books I-V of The history of Rome from its foundations. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044809-8.
- Ober, J.; Hedrick, C.W. (1996). Dēmokratia: a conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01108-0.
- Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Ober, Josiah; Wallace, Robert W (2007). Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24562-4.
Further reading[edit]
![]() | This further reading section may contain inappropriate or excessive suggestions that may not follow Wikipedia's guidelines. Please ensure that only a reasonable number of balanced, topical, reliable, and notable further reading suggestions are given; removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view where appropriate. Consider utilising appropriate texts as inline sources or creating a separate bibliography article. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |
- Abbott, Lewis. (2006). British Democracy: Its Restoration and Extension. ISR/Google Books.
- Appleby, Joyce. (1992). Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination. Harvard University Press.
- Archibugi, Daniele, The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy, Princeton University Press ISBN 978-0-691-13490-1
- Becker, Peter, Heideking, Juergen, & Henretta, James A. (2002). Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the German States, 1750–1850. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80066-2
- Benhabib, Seyla. (1996). Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04478-1
- Blattberg, Charles. (2000). From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-829688-1.
- Birch, Anthony H. (1993). The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-41463-0
- Castiglione, Dario. (2005). "Republicanism and its Legacy." European Journal of Political Theory. pp. 453–65.
- Copp, David, Jean Hampton, & John E. Roemer. (1993). The Idea of Democracy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43254-2
- Caputo, Nicholas. (2005). America's Bible of Democracy: Returning to the Constitution. SterlingHouse Publisher, Inc. ISBN 978-1-58501-092-9
- Dahl, Robert A. (1991). Democracy and its Critics. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04938-1
- Dahl, Robert A. (2000). On Democracy. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08455-9
- Dahl, Robert A. Ian Shapiro & Jose Antonio Cheibub. (2003). The Democracy Sourcebook. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54147-3
- Dahl, Robert A. (1963). A Preface to Democratic Theory. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-13426-0
- Davenport, Christian. (2007). State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86490-9
- Diamond, Larry & Marc Plattner. (1996). The Global Resurgence of Democracy. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5304-3
- Diamond, Larry & Richard Gunther. (2001). Political Parties and Democracy. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6863-4
- Diamond, Larry & Leonardo Morlino. (2005). Assessing the Quality of Democracy. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8287-6
- Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner & Philip J. Costopoulos. (2005). World Religions and Democracy. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8080-3
- Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner & Daniel Brumberg. (2003). Islam and Democracy in the Middle East. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7847-3
- Elster, Jon. (1998). Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59696-1
- Emerson, Peter (2007) "Designing an All-Inclusive Democracy." Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-33163-6
- Emerson, Peter (2012) "Defining Democracy." Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-20903-1
- Everdell, William R. (2003) The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-22482-1.
- Fuller, Roslyn (2015). Beasts and Gods: How Democracy Changed Its Meaning and Lost its Purpose. United Kingdom: Zed Books. p. 371. ISBN 978-1-78360-542-2.
- Gabardi, Wayne. (2001). Contemporary Models of Democracy. Polity.
- Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson. (1996). Democracy and Disagreement. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-19766-4
- Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson. (2002). Why Deliberative Democracy? Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12019-5
- Haldane, Robert Burdone (1918). . London: Headley Bros. Publishers Ltd.
- Halperin, M.H., Siegle, J.T. & Weinstein, M.M. (2005). The Democracy Advantage: How Democracies Promote Prosperity and Peace. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-95052-7
- Henderson, G. C. (1920). . Adelaide: G. Hassell & Son.
- Hansen, Mogens Herman. (1991). The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18017-3
- Held, David. (2006). Models of Democracy. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5472-9
- Inglehart, Ronald. (1997). Modernisation and Postmodernisation. Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01180-6
- Isakhan, Ben and Stockwell, Stephen (co-editors). (2011) The Secret History of Democracy. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-24421-4
- Jarvie, I.C.; Milford, K. (2006). Karl Popper: Life and time, and values in a world of facts Volume 1 of Karl Popper: A Centenary Assessment. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7546-5375-2.
- Khan, L. Ali. (2003). A Theory of Universal Democracy: Beyond the End of History. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-90-411-2003-8
- Köchler, Hans. (1987). The Crisis of Representative Democracy. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-8204-8843-2
- Lijphart, Arend. (1999). Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07893-0
- Lipset, Seymour Martin (1959). "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy". American Political Science Review. 53 (1): 69–105. doi:10.2307/1951731. JSTOR 1951731. S2CID 53686238.
- Macpherson, C.B. (1977). The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-289106-8
- Morgan, Edmund. (1989). Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-30623-1
- Mosley, Ivo (2003). Democracy, Fascism, and the New World Order. Imprint Academic. ISBN 978-0-907845-64-5.
- Mosley, Ivo (2013). In The Name Of The People. Imprint Academic. ISBN 978-1-84540-262-4.
- Plattner, Marc F. & Aleksander Smolar. (2000). Globalisation, Power, and Democracy. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6568-8
- Plattner, Marc F. & João Carlos Espada. (2000). The Democratic Invention. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6419-3
- Putnam, Robert. (2001). Making Democracy Work. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-5-551-09103-5
- Riker, William H.. (1962). The Theory of Political Coalitions. Yale University Press.
- Sen, Amartya K. (1999). "Democracy as a Universal Value". Journal of Democracy. 10 (3): 3–17. doi:10.1353/jod.1999.0055. S2CID 54556373.
- Tannsjo, Torbjorn. (2008). Global Democracy: The Case for a World Government. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3499-6. Argues that not only is world government necessary if we want to deal successfully with global problems it is also, pace Kant and Rawls, desirable in its own right.
- Thompson, Dennis (1970). The Democratic Citizen: Social Science and Democratic Theory in the 20th Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13173-5
- Tooze, Adam, "Democracy and Its Discontents", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp. 52–53, 56–57. "Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of bureaucratic and technological power. We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of artificial intelligence and robotics. Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed.... Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly.... Finally, there is the threat du jour: corporations and the technologies they promote." (pp. 56–57.)
- Vinje, Victor Condorcet (2014). The Versatile Farmers of the North; The Struggle of Norwegian Yeomen for Economic Reforms and Political Power, 1750–1814. Nisus Publications.
- Volk, Kyle G. (2014). Moral Minorities and the Making of American Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Weingast, Barry. (1997). "The Political Foundations of the Rule of Law and Democracy". American Political Science Review. 91 (2): 245–63. doi:10.2307/2952354. JSTOR 2952354.
- Weatherford, Jack. (1990). Indian Givers: How the Indians Transformed the World. New York: Fawcett Columbine. ISBN 978-0-449-90496-1
- Whitehead, Laurence. (2002). Emerging Market Democracies: East Asia and Latin America. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7219-8
- Willard, Charles Arthur. (1996). Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-89845-2
- Wood, E. M. (1995). Democracy Against Capitalism: Renewing historical materialism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47682-9
- Wood, Gordon S. (1991). The Radicalism of the American Revolution. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-73688-2 examines democratic dimensions of republicanism
External links[edit]
Library resources about Democracy |
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![]() | Look up democracy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Democracy at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Democracy
- The Economist Intelligence Unit's index of democracy
- Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America Full hypertext with critical essays on America in 1831–32 from American Studies at the University of Virginia
- The Varieties of Democracy project. Indicators of hundreds of attributes of democracy and non-democracy for most countries from 1900 to 2018, and from as early as 1789 for dozens of countries, with many interactive online graphics tools
- Data visualizations of data on democratisation and list of data sources on political regimes on 'Our World in Data', by Max Roser.
- MaxRange: Analyzing political regimes and democratization processes—Classifying political regime type and democracy level to all states and months 1789–2015
- "Democracy", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Melissa Lane, David Wootton and Tim Winter (In Our Time, 18 October 2001)
- Democracy (1945) on YouTube Encyclopædia Britannica Films